I.T. Project - Converting a Card Index System to a Database Essay Example for Free

I.T. Project Converting a Card Index System to a Database EssayThe present system is based on the manual card office system so most of the course is d i by hand, however due to the ever increasing g hagglingth of technology, and the internet, a wide range of resources are now being made tardily accessible.British Airways has recently introduced booking online, where customers can book a flight and accommodation all over the Internet. macrocosm such a big company as British Airways, most of their bookings are made with travel agents who book the flights and pass the information on to them. Question 1 Could you describe the current system being used byQuestion 2 How are these cards stored?Question3 What problems do you encounter at the moment?Software AvailableMICROSOFT OFFICE 2000WORD PROCESSOR MICROSOFT WORD 2000A word processing package is a program or lop of programs used to edit, format, store and print documents.Word processors absorb many important unique featur es* Spelling and Grammar CheckerMisspelt words, or grammatical errors can be place and corrected by the words in the computers dictionary. Correct words, identified by the spell check as wrong can be added to the dictionary.* Automatic knowledgeability of index and table of contentsAny word in the text can be marked for inclusion in an index. Headings and subheadings in a addicted style can be included automatically in a table of contents, which can be updated at any time.* Import FilesTables, photographs, graphics, video and hard files can be imported from other sources and inserted in a document.* Mail mergeA document and a be given of names and addresses can be merged to produce personalised letters.* Creation of templates with preset text styles. Margins, formatting, letterheading etc.* WYSIWYGThis stands for What You See Is What you Get, and refers to the ability to display on the screen. And enables the user to see their work on the screen exactly as it will be printed.SP READSHEET MICROSOFT EXCEL 2000Spreadsheet packages allow a user to create worksheets (spreadsheets) representing info in column and row form. Spreadsheets are used for any application that uses numerical data, such as budgets, cash go down forecasts, profit and loss statements, student marks or results of experiment.Spreadsheet features* formatting cells, rows and columns, specifying for example, the alignment of text, number of decimal points, height and width of cells.* Copy cell contents to other locations, with automatic adjustment of formulae from an area to another location.* Determine the moment of several different hypothetical changes of data this facility is called what-if calculation.* Insert, move or delete rows and columns.* Use functions such as sum, average, max, min in formulae* Create a simple database and sort or query the data to produce a report of, say for example, all males gaining over a C grade, for a list of students.* Write macros to automate common pr ocedures* Create templates Spreadsheets with formats and formulae already entered, into which new figures may be inserted.* Create multi dimensional spreadsheets use several sheets, and copy data from one sheet to another* Create many different types of chart and graphsDATABASE MICROSOFT ACCESS 2000A database is a collection of data. It may be something as simple as a list of names and addresses or details of the CDs in your personal collection, or it may contain details of all the customers, products, orders and payments in a astronomic organisation. When made reference to, the word database is assumed to be data held on a computer, but manual databases also exist. Some smaller business (a garage) may hold a card index file with details about a customer and their car.The main difference between a manual and computerised databases is the secureness at which data can be accessed.PRESENTATION GRAPHICS MICROSOFT POWERPOINT 2000Presentation graphics software such as PowerPoint is useful for putting together a presentation which can be delivered using a computer attached to a projection device, using transparencies and an ordinary overhead projector or as a self-running presentation in, say a shopping centre or cinema. The software allows the user to quickly create slides combining text, graphics and pictures and to create animation or sound effects and transition effects between slides. in operation(p) SYSTEM MICROSOFT WINDOWS 98Hardware AvailableThese are the specifications of the PC I am using at HomeOPERATING SYSTEMWINDOWS(r) 98 PLUSCPUINTEL(r) CELERONTM / 333MHZRAM64MB FOR WINDOWS(r) 98SCREEN DISPLAY800 BY 600 PIXELSTRUE COLOUR (32 BIT)compact disc read-only memory SPEED32-SPEEDAVAILABLE billet ON HARD DRIVE2.4GBAUDIO16-BIT SOUND CARDOTHERLOUDSPEAKERSThese are the system specifications for the systems at schoolOPERATING SYSTEMWINDOWS(r) 98CPU433MHZRAM32MB FOR WINDOWS(r) 98SCREEN DISPLAY640 BY 480 PIXELS256 COLOURSCD-ROM SPEED24 SPEEDAVAILABLE SPACE ON HARD DRIVE10MBAUDIO8-BIT SOUND CARDPRINTERHP LASERJETAll systems should piss Microsoft military post 97/2000.All systems must apply Microsoft Excel 97/2000.End Users IT LiteracyThe end user of my system will already have basic IT skills and will have already had experience with the Microsoft Office Package. As they are working for a big trans-national company, they would have already undergone training in the secretarial sector, of which IT skills are a key part. To even have the job, they would have to be able to type quickly, answer calls and transmit data efficiently. Therefore, training costs will be kept to a minimum.Final resourceHaving looked at the current system and the software and hardware available, I have decided to use Microsoft Excel, a spreadsheet program to design my booking system. Spreadsheet packages allow a user to create worksheets (spreadsheets) representing data in column and row form. Spreadsheets are used for any application that uses numerical data, s uch as budgets, cash flow forecasts, profit and loss statements, student marks or results of experiments. Spreadsheets offer a wide range of facilities making the task easier to perform.SKILLS Current/To be acquiredI have a good understanding of the Microsoft Excel package. I have done quite a few calculations and performed basic macros. Having looked through the coursework of former students, and reading through the coursework guide, I realise that I need to improve my knowledge of Excel. Excel is a powerful package and can carry out many tasks easily if instructed correctly. I have already started to go through sample projects showing me how to go about certain tasks with a book titled Successful I.T. Projects in Excel, written by P.M Heathcote.End User Requirements Provide detailed reports showing customer booking for every working day. Produce summary reports for flight bookings in order of popularity. Allow data entry for new customers. Provide easy access for amendments to cus tomer details and flight details. Automatic backup for all change records daily and weekly. Provide an exception report for outstanding customer debts or extreme bank credit limits. The system should record financial details concerning currency in/outstanding. Allow queries on the current flight availability.Quantitative Criteria Printed tickets are to be generated within 15 minutes. Accessing and amending customer/Fight/Airport details should be instantaneous. Queries are processed promptly on customer request. Backup should occur automatically every 24 seconds. Flight details processed every Friday (1 hour max) Exception reports are produced quickly on demand within a minute.Qualitative Criteria The system should provide a workable Human Computer interface system according to different users, i.e. simple menu selections or buttons The company logo is consistent on all forms and reports. Amount of available screen data is kept to a minimum (increase usability) Help systems are easily accessible.

Wiccan traditional covens Essay Example for Free

Wiccan traditional covens EssayWiccan traditional covens are formed thru male-female pairs thus making an obstacle for exclusive members. The traditional practice do not however make any moralistic judgments about homosexuality according to Sanders (1987). The traditional covens criticize male-male or female-female pairings that is a lot seen as dangerous, in producing a mutually productive balance and is viewed as outside the mainstream Wicca. The understandable criticisms of traditional wiccans on the radicalism attached to gay members practicing wicca spins around the roles of a traditional heterosexual family as related by Curottt (2005). Traditional craft says that there is impossibility in working magic for two men in a gay relationship according to Salomonsen(2002). Though homosexuals cannot be barred from wicca, traditional values bar them from high ranks on the basis of sexual orientation. This compare is an apparent reason for members to shy away from the pressures brought about by their own original classify and join others or start a solitary practice. bid other ghostlike denominations, the wiccan practice has formed dissenting opinions from other members and groups.This is highly conceivable considering the groups lack of a centralized organization that commands a theological doctrine as a guideline for every practitioner. Like other religions, those who do not conform to the standard form their own sub-groups in order to liberalize them from the restrictions created by their own organization. Naturally, the mainstream aspect of the practice is retained as evidenced by the unified stance of Mary Anne, Sheila, Cris and Carol who vehemently denied any incorporation of evil practices and witchcraft into the wiccan religion.I firmly believe that the Wiccan practice as a religion depends upon a persons moral and religious convictions. Most practitioners are happy with their practice because they are afforded the freedom to entertain their bel iefs. The mere intolerance for hatred which is liberally taught and positively interpreted in wicca as the acceptance of other individuals is an ethical basis that any religion should uphold.Most likely, the lack of a centralized organization mandating doctrines of practice enables a group or an individual to freely incorporate or deviate from their belief and rituals without the pain of ridicule. Further, the lack of a centralized body reaping the benefits acquired from religious practice prevents conflicts from escalating which a good deal results in a major religious disintegration. Wicca, as a religious practice teaches acceptance, love for nature and life.We can always distinguish that other religious denominations despite a strong stance against wicca have incorporated the age-old neo-pagan practices of the wiccan culture in their own beliefs. We do not have to enumerate the similarities which for certain show that the wiccan practice has long evolved even before man learned to integrate religion and culture into their social lives.Works CitedRountree, Kathryn. Embracing the witch and the goddess womens liberationist Ritual-Makers in New Zealand. London Routledge, 2004. http//kindredspirit.co.uk/

Investigation of Unknown Carbohydrate

Investigation of Unk instantaneouslyn CarbohydrateINTRODUCTIONFrom the name itself, Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbons that are polar in nature. The structure blocks of carbohydrates are monosaccharides which are simple sugars due to their low molecular weight. Carbohydrates are the product of p resilientosynthesis from the condensation of carbon dioxide that requires light and chlorophyll. Carbohydrates have a vital mathematical function in the nutrition of organisms since it is the major source of energy. ATP is energy released by plants and it is the needed by the body to function accordingly.Carbohydrates have different structures thus it gives apparent reactions to various reagents depending on its chemical composition. It can be grouped into monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides could be classified as polyhrdoxy aldoses or ketoses. These are the simplest carbohydrates that cannot be broken down into little aggregates. These are aldehydes tha t contain two or more hydroxyl groups. Disaccharides are two simple sugars that are linked tog aether by a glycosidic bond- an ether bond formed from the merging of two hydroxyl groups between monosaccharides. Polysaccharides, on the other hand, are made up of multiple sugar units attached to a group of disaccharides. They are formed by a glycosidic linkage.MATERIALS AND METHODSFor the identification of the unknown carbohydrates samples, 1.00 ml of two unknown samples were transfer inflamed in a sample tube and 1.00 ml of Molisch reagents was added as well as 1.00 ml of concentrated . For for each one of the tests- Iodine test, Benedicts test, Barfoeds test, Seliwan run intos test and 2,4-DNP test, fresh samples were needed for each. Table 1 shows the needed amount of reagent for each test for a qualitative analysis.The identity of the two unknown samples was indeed distinguished based on the reaction of the given set of carbohydrates.For the hydrolysis of starch, 50.00 ml of 5% starch solution was placed in a 100 ml beaker. About 5.00 ml of concentrated sulfuric paneling was added. Covering the beaker with aluminum foil, it was then heated until boiled in a water bath. About 1.00 ml of the sample was placed in two separate test tubes with the access of 1.00 ml of unity reagent to one and 1.00 ml of Benedicts reagent to the other. The sample was heated continuously. With an interval of 5 minutes, 1.00 ml of the sample was transferred into two separate tees tubes once again and with the addition of the iodine and Benedicts reagent until a aristocratical-black precipitate is formed with the iodine reagent and a brick red seeming with the Benedicts reagent.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTable 2 shows the desired color change of the carbohydrates upon the addition of certain reagents. Molischs test is a general test for carbohydrates that determines the presence of carbonyl groups, which gives bump off a deep purple colored substance. The Iodine test gives off a hot-black colored complex as a positive reaction towards iodine. Benedicts test determines the identity of the reducing sugars which results to an orange-rust color. Barfoeds test has the same purpose as Benedicts test for determining the reducing sugars, but this Barfoeds test gives off a positive test for reducing monossaccharides only. Seliwanoffs test determines the presence of aldoses and ketoses, only the ketoses give off a positive reaction resulting to a brick red color. The 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine or the 2.4-DNP test determines the reaction of monosaccharides that gives off yellow- black crystals of osazones that intensifies the color of the substance.Molischs test is a general test for carbohydrates. Concentrated sulfuric acid was added producing a deep purple colored substance. The carbohydrate undergoes dehydration wherein water was released upon the addition of sulfuric acid. Pentoses and hexoses react with the sulfuric acid resulting to the positive color change.For the Iodine test, the only sugar that reacted was starch. Starch is a polysaccharide- a categorisation of amylose and amylopectin. An amylose forms a helical structure in water. Iodine could considerably penetrate through the helical structure, since monosaccharides and disaccharides arent too small they do not react with iodine. Upon the penetration of the iodine to the core of the helix, it produces a blue-black colored substance. When heated, the blue color disappears because the helical ring of the amylose is disrupted. Iodine is does not have the capacity to bind itself back to helix. The blue color returns when the starch is cooled. The iodine can now bind back to the helix.Benedicts test identifies the reducing sugars, the monosaccharides and the disaccharides. This reagent is a weak oxidizing reagent. Cuprous oxide was converted from cuprous hydroxide. The former determines the presence of the reducing sugar.Seliwanoffs test differentiates ketoses from aldoses. The ketose yields a brick red color upon the addition of heat. Ketose undergoes dehydration when diluted in HCl and heated.Barfoeds test identifies the reducing sugars as well, but this test is specific only for monosaccharides. Carbohydrates exposed to the Barfoed reagent, a mixture of copper acetate and glacial acetic acid, undergoes reduction. The reducing monosaccharide dresss the cupric ions to cuprous ions in acidic medium (4). The cuprous ions formed in turn, reduce the colorless phosphomolybdic acid to blue phosphomolybdous acid (4). The positive color change for monosaccharides was exhibited by a deep blue color, while the disaccharide exhibited a light blue color.The 2,4- DNP test is a general test for carbohydrates. This determines the presence of aldehydes and ketones. The aldoses and ketoses are quite similar. The reducing sugars produce a positive test.The identity of starch could be slowly distinguished through the iodine test. When the starch is hydrolyzed it can have a posit ive result in the Benedicts test. The acetal linkages in starch are hydrolyzed in hot aqueous acid (6).Benedicts test is a useful test in detecting the sugar concentration in the urine of a patient diagnosed with diabetes mellitus. The color of the precipitate gives an approximate percentage of sugar excreted in the urine (4). The color determines the percentage of sugar present in the urine. If the precipitate is blue, sugar is absent, green if in that location are 0-0.5% sugar, yellow if 1% sugar, orange if 1.5% sugar, and red if 2% sugar or more.

Evolution of Australian Flora: Hymenopteran Visual Systems

Evolution of Australian Flora Hymenopteran Visual SystemsAbstractVery teensy-weensy discipline has been done on the evolution of plantl food food color diversity, distant of Europe and the Middle East. In particular, we know almost nothing nigh the evolution of the Australian phytology in the context of hymenopteran visual systems. Such a study is likely to be grave due to the geologically long closing off of the Australian flora and the high proportion of endemic plant species. The aims of this study were to investigate the chroma of Australian native florescences in the context of hymenopteran visual systems, the unlettered polish preferences of Australian native bees (Trigona carbonaria), and the interactions between native bees and a intellectual nourishment deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea). Firstly, I found that the discrimination thresholds of hymenopterans assure up with floral colour diversity and that hymenopterans appear to cook been a major contributor to thrill colour evolution in Australia. Secondly, I found that Trigona carbonaria has immanent preferences for wavelengths of 422, 437 and 530 nm. Thirdly, I found that bees were able to ingest to orchid flowers based on colour, thus potentially explaining the colour polymorphism of Caladenia carnea. Together, my study suggests that the evolution of the Australian flora has been influenced by hymenopterans.1. IntroductionPlant-pollinator interactionsThe rough-cut interactions between pollinators and plants have been suspected in driving angiosperm radiation and diversification in the past (Regal 1977 Crepet 1984 McPeek 1996). The obvious mutual benefit is that pollinators depend on the pollen and/or nectar of anthesis plants for food and, in return, partake in the incidental transfer of pollen necessary for plant sound reflection (Faegri and van der Pijl 1978 Harder, Williams et al. 2001). Worldwide, it is estimated that more than 67% of angiosperm plants rely on pollination by insects (Tepedino 1979). Hence, pollinators exemplify a critical role in the persistence and survival of flowering plants, which be of high value to the gentle food chain (Kearns and Inouye 1997 Klein, Vaissiere et al. 2007).Flower colour signals and sensory operationationColour is the result of the visible legerity being absorbed or reflected off objects and indeed processed by the eye and brain of an animal (Le Grand 1968). Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and tail be quantified by the wavelength of opposite photons of energy (Bueche 1986). The wavelengths reflected off the object are perceive by a visual system as the objects colour. For example, lightsome that appears blue to a human beings observer can be described by a dominant wavelength of 400nm, whilst light that appears red is 700nm. Ultraviolet light falls between 300-400nm and can be seen by bees, but not humans. Flower influence have been influenced by the sensory receptors of insects, incl uding their colour vision, which is different to human vision. Humans have a red, blue and green receptor (Chittka and rise up 2004). In pedigree insects have a UV, green and blue receptor (Chittka and Wells 2004). As human vision is very different to a hymenopterans colour visual system, one cannot discuss a bees colour perception according to human colour terms such as red or blue. Therefore, this thesis will discuss colours according to wavelength.Colour is one of the most of the essence(predicate) floral signals plants use to communicate information to insect pollinators (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996 Dyer, Spaethe et al. 2008). Although it is cognize that pollinators select flowers based on morphology, nectar availability, size, and odour (Giurfa, Nez et al. 1994 Kunze and Gumbert 2001 Spaethe, Tautz et al. 2001 Whitney and Glover 2007), colour is known to play a critical role in enabling pollinators to detect and discriminate target flowers from a biologically important dis tance of up to 50 cm (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996 Dyer, Spaethe et al. 2008).Our understanding of the evolution of colour vision in insects has advanced considerably in late years. In the past, studies of colour perception were limited due to little information on the colour visual system of insects (Frisch 1914 Daumer 1956). It is now possible to evaluate how flower visual signals appear to the visual system of hymenopteran pollinators, utilise spectrophotometer and colorimetry techniques, which allows quantitative evaluations of how complex colour information is perceived by insect pollinators (Chittka 1992) (fig. 1).Previous research has revealed that colour discrimination in hymenopterans is phylogenetically ancient, with different hymenopterans sharing similar colour perception (Helversen 1972 Chittka and Menzel 1992). Importantly, colour discrimination in the hymenoptera is known to predate the evolution of floral colour diversity (Chittka 1996). Here, juvenile research ha s revealed remarkable convergence in the evolution and distribution of floral colours in different parts of the world. Specifically, in a seminal paper, Chittka (1996) come outed that flowering plants in both Europe and the Middle East have adapted their colour signals to the visual systems of bees, with flower colours in these regions closely matched to the visual receptors of hymenopterans (Chittka 1996). However, outside of Europe and the Middle East, very little work has been done on the evolution of floral colour diversity. In particular, we know almost nothing about the evolution of the Australian flora in the context of hymenopteran visual systems. This is an important question to investigate due to the long isolation of the Australian flora and the high proportion of endemic plant species. I hypothesise that the Australian floral color will closely match the discrimination thresholds of hymenopterans as recent evidence suggests that insect pollinators supported the early s pread of flowering plants (Hu, Dilcher et al. 2008).Innate colour preferences of beesCharles Darwin was the first to state that innate preferences could allow an inexperienced pollinator to find a food source (Darwin 1877). Pollinators may use certain traits of flowers such as morphology, scent, temperature and colour to locate food (Heinrich 1979 Menzel 1985 Dyer, Whitney et al. 2006 Raine, Ings et al. 2006). Previous studies evaluating innate colour preferences have tended to centralise on devil species the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and bumblebee (Bombus terrestris). By contrast, no studies have looked at the innate colour preferences of Australian bees and how this affects their choices for flowers. We know that European bumblebees and honeybees show strong preferences for violet and blue (400-420nm) by dint ofout their geographic range (Chittka, Ings et al. 2004) ,which interestingly correlates with the most profitable food sources (Lunau and Maier 1995 Chittka and Raine 2006). These preferences are likely to have had an impact on the relative success of different flower colours in regions where these bees are dominant pollinators (Chittka and Wells 2004). Consequently, information on the innate preferences of Australian bees will be important to understand hymenopteran plant interactions in the Australian context.Pollinator learning and food deceptive orchidsMost plants reward their pollinators with nectar or pollen. However, some species do not offer floral rewards and, instead, employ a range of deceptive techniques to trick insects into performing the task of pollination. Deceptive pollination strategies are particularly sanitary known and widespread among orchids (Jerskov, Johnson et al. 2006). For instance, approximately 400 orchid species are known to achieve pollination through internal deceit, luring unsuspecting male insects to the flower through olfactory, visual and tactile mimicry of potential mates. More common are food decepti ve orchids which are believed to number as many as 6,000 species (one-third of orchids) (Jerskov, Johnson et al. 2009). regimen mimicking orchids employ bright colours to falsely advertise the presence of a reward to attract naive pollinators (Ackerman 1986 Nilsson 1992 Jerskov, Johnson et al. 2006). The common occurrence of food deception in orchids suggests that this form of pollination by deception is an extremely successful evolutionary strategy (Cozzolino and Widmer 2005).Visits by pollinators to deceptive plants are influenced by pollinator learning. In the case of sexual deception, old research shows that insects quickly learn unrewarding flower decoys and subjugate them. For example, male insects learn to avoid areas containing sexually deceptive orchids (Peakall 1990 Wong and Schiestl 2002). However, whether insects can learn to avoid food deceptive orchids remains to be investigated. In addition, high levels of variability in floral traits, particularly flower colour an d floral scent, may let on the associative learning of insects by preventing their ability to become familiar with deceptive flowers (Schiestl 2005). Indeed, variation in colour, shape and fragrance is evident in non-model food-deceptive orchids (Moya and Ackerman 1993 Aragn and Ackerman 2004 Salzmann, Nardella et al. 2007). However, previous studies have only looked at pollinator preference for colour morphs (Koivisto, Vallius et al. 2002), rather than tasking if variable flower colour slows down the ability of naive pollinators to learn unrewarding flower decoys. Furthermore, there is a need to incorporate a combination of colour vision science and behavioural ecology to understand how a bee perceives the orchid flowers, as bees have a different visual system to humans.Although humans cannot see ultra-violet light, UV predisposition is common in some animals (Tove 1995). UV sensitivity has been found in insects, birds, fish and reptiles (Marshall, Jones et al. 1996 Neumeyer an d Kitschmann 1998 Cuthill, take leaveridge et al. 2000 Briscoe and Chittka 2001). Studies on UV vision in an ecological context have mainly foc apply on species limited signalling and mate choice (Bennett, Cuthill et al. 1996 Bennett, Cuthill et al. 1997 Pearn 2001 Cummings, Garc et al. 2006). However, few studies have looked at the role of UV signals in attracting bees to orchids. Previous studies have shown that the presence of UV reflecting crab spiders attracts honeybees to daisies (Heiling, Herberstein et al. 2003). In a similar study, Australian native bees (Austroplebia australis) were attracted but did not land on flowers with UV reflecting crab spiders (Heiling and Herberstein 2004). However, the role of UV signals in orchids is not well studied. In particular, it is not known if the UV signal is important in attracting naive bees to food deceptive orchids. Thus, it will be useful to know if UV signals dexterity also serve to lure naive pollinators to deceptive flowers t o understand deceptive pollination.AimsThis project will investigate Australian flower colour diversity in the context of hymenopteran visual systems, the innate colour preferences of Australian native bees (Trigona carbonaria) and their interactions with a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea). This study aims to address the following questions1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration?2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences?3. Does a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea) exploit the innate colour preferences of Trigona carbonar2. Methods fracture 1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration?Flower collection and spectral reflectance functions of Australian native plant flowersAustralian native flowers were collected from Maranoa Gardens, Balwyn (melway ref 46 F7). Maranoa Gardens was chosen due to the several(a) collection of species from all over Australia. Flowers were collected once a month, from May to January.A colour photograph was taken of the flower for identification. I also took a UV photograph for all flowers, employ a digital UV camera Fuji Finepix Pro S3 UVIR modified CCD for UV imaging with calibrated UV-vis grey scales (Dyer, Muir et al. 2004). As UV rays are invisible to the human eye (Menzel and Blakers 1976 Dyer 2001), this photo enabled any UV reflectance areas of the flower to be measured by the spectrophotometer (Indsto, Weston et al. 2006).The spectral reflection functions of flowers were work out from 300 to 700 nm using a spectrophotometer(S2000) with a PX-2 pulsed xenon light source attached to a PC running SpectraSuite software (Ocean Optics Inc., Dunedin, FL, USA). The spectrophotometer was used to measure the colour of the flower as wavelength. The white standard was a freshly pressed pellet of dry BaSO4, used to calibrate the spectrophotometer. A minimum of common chord flowers from personly plant were used for distributively spectral compend. I evaluated a sample of 111 spectral measurements from Australian flowering plants, encompassing a representative potpourri of plant families (fig. 2).Correlations between spectral reflectance functions of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of the honeybeesTo understand if there is a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian native flowers, I used the methodology used by Chittka and Menzel (1992). In that study, Chittka and Menzel looked for correlations between flower spectra p distributivelyy steps of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of the honeybees. slap-up steps are a rapid change in the spectra wavelength (Chittka and Menzel 1992) (see fig. 3 for an example of a sharp step). These steps cross over different receptors, thereby producing vivid colours that stand out from the reach. Furthermore, a colour signal will be more distinguishable to a pollinator if the sharp steps match up with the overlap of receptors in a visual system. Thus, the main feature of a flower wavelength is a sharp step. For this study, I defined a sharp step as a change of greater than 20 % reflectance in less than 50 nm of the bee visual spectrum. The midpoint of the slope was post(p) by eyesight as described by Chittka and Menzel (1992), as the nature of curves varied with each flower. The absolute numbers of sharp steps within each flower spectra were counted. The frequencies are shown in fig. 4b. As hybrid plants are artificially selected by humans, hybrid flowers were not included in the analyses.Generating a Hexagon colour quadTo evaluate how flower colours are seen by bees, I plotted the flower colour positions in a colour hexagon place. A colour space is a numerical representation of an insects colour perception that is suitable for a wide range of hymenopteran species (Chittka 1992). In a colour space, the distances between locations of a two colour objects link with the insects capacity to differentiate those colours. To make the colour space, the spectral reflectance of the colour objects were required, as well as the receptor sensitivities of the insect. For Trigona carbonaria, the exact photoreceptors are currently unknown, but hymenopteran trichromatic vision is very similar between species as the colour photoreceptors are phylogenetically ancient (Chittka 1996). Thus, it is possible to model hymenopteran vision with a vitamin A1 visual template (Stavenga, Smits et al. 1993) as described by Dyer (1999). I then predicted how the brain processed these colour signals by using the average reflectance from each flower, and calculating the photoreceptor excitation (E) values, according to the UV, blue and green receptor sensitivities (Briscoe and Chittka 2001) using the methods explained by Chittka (1992). The UV, blue and green E-values of flower spectra were used as coordinates and plotted in a colour space (Chittka 1992). The colour difference as perceived by a bee w as calculate by the Euclidean distance between two objects locations in the colour hexagon space (Chittka 1992).Modelling the distributions of Australian flower colours according to bees perceptionI analysed the most frequent flower colour according to a bees colour perception using the methods of Chittka, Shmida et al. (1994). I plotted the Australian flower colours in a colour space (Fig 5a). A colour space is a graphical representation of a bees colour perception. A radial grid of 10 degree sectors was placed over the distribution of colour loci and the number of floral colour loci within each sector was counted(fig. 5b).Part 2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences?Insect model and housingTrigona carbonaria is an Australian native stingless bee that haves in colonies of 4000-10000 individuals (Heard 1988). In the wild, stingless bees live in hollows inside trees (Dollin, Dollin et al. 1997). Trigona carbonaria has a similar social st ructure to the honeybee (Wille 1983). They are common to North Eastern Australia and are a potentially important pollinator for several major commercial crops (Heard 1999). A research colony (ca. 4000 adults and 800 foraging individuals) of T. carbonaria was propagated for the experiments by Dr Tim Heard (CSIRO Entomology, 120 Meiers Rd, Indooroopilly 4068, Australia) as described in the paper by Heard (1988). Bees were maintained in laboratory conditions so that no previous contact with flowers had been made. For this study, a colony was placed in a pine come near box (27.5 x 20 x 31 cm LWH) and connected to the foraging arena by a 16 cm plexiglass tube, containing individual shutters to control bee movements. All laboratory experiments were conducted in a Controlled Temperature Laboratory (CTL) at Monash University, Clayton, School of Biological Sciences (CTL room G12C dimensions 3 x 5m), during the months of July 2009- January 2010. Relative humidity (RH) was set to 30%, and the temperature was set to 27 C (SPER-Scientific Hygrometer, Arizona, USA), as this set up approximately matches conditions in Queensland for insect pollinators (Heard and Hendrikz 1993). Illumination (10/14 hr day/night) was provided by four Phillips Master TLS HE slimline 28W/865 UV+ daylight fluorescent tubes (Holland) with specially fitted high frequence (1200Hz) ATEC Jupiter EGF PMD2x14-35 electronic dimmable ballasts which closely matches daylight conditions for trichromatic hymenoptera (Dyer and Chittka 2004). The fledge arena (1.2 x 0.6 x 0.5m LWH) was made of a coated steel frame with laminated white wooden side panels. The arena floor was painted leafing green, and the arena lid was covered with UV transparent plexiglass. Experiments were conducted from 1pm-3pm to control for time of day, as this is when bees are most active (Heard and Hendrikz 1993).Pre-trainingBees were habituated to the safety valve arena for seven days. aboveboard foragers (i.e. bees that had never e ncountered real or artificial flowers) were initially pre-trained to forage in the flight arena on three rewarding aluminium sanded disks (25 mm in diameter), with a 10-l droplet of 15% (w/w) sucrose solution placed in the centre. The disks were placed on vertical plastic cylinders (diameter = 25 mm, height = 100 mm), to set them above the floor of the flight arena so that bees learnt to fly to the disks. Pre-training allows bees to become habituated to visiting artificial flowers for further experiments. The aluminium sanded disks were chosen as neutral stimuli because they have an even spectral reflectance curve in the spectral visual range of the bees, fig. 6. The sucrose solution reward on these training disks was refilled using a pipette later it was consumed by foraging bees. The spatial positions of these training disks were pseudo randomised, so that bees would not learn to associate particular locations with reward. Bees were allowed a minimum of two hours to forage on th e pre-training disks before data collectionInnate colour preference testingTo test the innate colour preferences of naive bees, I performed synchronous choice experiments with flower-naive bees using artificial flowers that simulated the floral colours of natural flowers. The aluminum rewarding disks were replaced by the ten unrewarding, coloured artificial disks in the skipper flight arena. Artificial flower stimuli were cut in a circle (70 mm diameter) from standardized colour papers of the HKS-N-series (Hostmann-Steinberg K+E Druckfarben, H. Schmincke Co., Germany). In each experiment the same set of ten test colours (1N pale yellow, 3N saturated yellow, 21N light pink, 32N pink, 33N purple, 50N blue, 68N green, 82N brown, 92N grey, back of 92N white) were used. These colours were chosen as they have been used in innate colour experiments with other hymenopterans (Giurfa, Nez et al. 1995 Kelber 1997 Gumbert 2000), and the colours are also widely used in other bee col our experiments (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996). The coloured paper disks were placed on vertical plastic cylinders (diameter = 15 mm height = 50 mm), to raise them above the floor of the flight arena. The gate was shut in the arena to ensure the bees used in each trial were separated from the next trial. The number of landings and approaches to the stimuli were enter for one hour. Approximately 200 bees were used for each trial. The spatial positions of the artificial flowers were pseudo randomised in a counter balance fashion every 15 minutes. After each trial, the colour disks were aeriform and wiped with a paper tissue to remove possible scent marks, which are known to affect experiments with honeybees (Schmitt and Bertsch 1990 Giurfa and Nez 1992). I conducted each subsequent trial after removing the used bees from the system, to ensure that the bees in the next trial were replaced with naive foragers.It is known that perception of colour can be influenced by background colour (Lunau, Wacht et al. 1996). Therefore, I also tested colour choices on other background colours of grey and black. The results are qualitatively similar (fig. 8b), so only data from the biologically relevant green background was used for subsequent analysis.Analysis of colour stimuliAs bees see colours differently to humans, I quantified stimuli according to five parameters wavelength, brightness, purity (saturation), chromatic contrast to the background and green receptor contrast. Dominant wavelength was calculated by tracing a line from the centre of the colour hexagon through the stimulant drug location to the corresponding spectrum locus wavelength (Wyszecki and Stiles 1982). Brightness was measured as the sum of excitation values of the UV, blue and green receptors (Spaethe, Tautz et al. 2001). Spectral purity of the input signal was calculated by the percentage distance of the stimulus in relation to the end of the spectrum locus (Chittka and Wells 2004). Chromatic contra st was calculated as the distance of a colour stimulus from the centre of the colour hexagon relative to the background. Chromatic contrast is important as perception can be affected by background colour (Lunau, Wacht et al. 1996). Green receptor contrast was measured as the green receptor excitation from a stimulus relative to the background (Giurfa, Nez et al. 1995). This contrast is relevant as green receptors and green contrast are known to affect motion in bees (Srinivasan, Lehrer et al. 1987).Statistical analysesThe impact of wavelength on number of landings by Trigona carbonaria was investigated using a single factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a post hoc Tukeys HSD test (=0.05) (Quinn and Keough 2002) using the number of landings as the dependent variable and wavelength of stimuli as the independent variable. Brightness, purity (saturation), chromatic contrast to the background and green receptor contrast of stimuli were analysed using the Spearmans rank correlation tes t against choices. Statistical analyses were conducted using R statistical and graphical environment (R Development Core Team, 2007). Statistical significance was set to P0.05.Part 3. Does a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea) exploit the innate colour preferences of Trigona carbonaria?Plant modelCaladenia carnea is a widespread species, common to eastern Australia. The orchid is highly variable in colour, ranging from pink to white. It is pollinated by Australian native bees of the Trigona species (Adams and Lawson 1993).With bright colours and fragrance, this orchid achieves pollination by food mimicry (Adams and Lawson 1993). Thus, due to the colour variation of the orchid, C. carnea is an excellent model with which to examine floral exploitation of potential pollinators. Caladenia carnea flowers were supplied by private growers from the Australasian Native Orchid Society.Can Trigona carbonaria perceive a difference between pink and white flowers of Caladenia carnea?colorime trical analysis of the pink and white Caladenia carnea flowers were used to investigate whether different colours of the orchid would be perceived as similar or different to a bees visual system. A spectrophotometer was used to take four measurements of each flower colour (pink versus white). The actual measurements used in the analysis were an average of each colour (Dyer, Whitney et al. 2007). To predict the probability with which insect pollinators would discriminate between different flowers, these spectra were plotted as loci in a hexagon colour space (Chittka 1992) (see hexagon colour space methods). filling experimentsI conducted trials testing the preferences of bees when offered a dichotomous choice between a white versus pink Caladenia carnea flower. Each trial took place inside a flight arena. Each white and pink flower used in a trial were matched for size, placed into indiviual plastic containers (diameter= 5 cm, height=5 cm) and placed in the arena with a distance of 1 0 cm between flower centres. Each container was covered with Glad WrapTM (The Clorox Company, Oaklands, CA, USA) to remove olfactory cues as they are known to inuence the choice behaviour of honeybees (e.g. Pelz, Gerber et al. 1997 Laska, Galizia et al. 1999). Approximately 50 bees were let into the arena for each trial. The rst contact made by a bee with the Glad WrapTM within a distance of 4 cm, was recorded as a choice of that ower (Dyer, Whitney et al. 2007). The number of landings were recorded to the flowers for five minutes. After each trial, the Glad WrapTM was changed to prevent scent marks. In addition, individual flowers and spatial positions were randomised. Individual bees were sacrificed after each trial to avoid pseudo replication.Does the UV signal affect the attraction of bees to orchid flowers?To investigate whether the UV reectance of the dorsal sepal affected the response of bees, I offered bees the choice between two white orchids, one with a UV signal and the o ther without (N=16). The UV signal was removed by applying a thin layer of sunblock (Hamilton SPF 30+, Adelaide, SA, Australia) over the dorsal sepal. Spectral reflectance measurements were taken to ensure that the sunscreen prevented any reflection of UV light (below 395 nm) from the sepals and did not change the reflectance properties of the orchid. In addition, spectral measurements of orchid sepals under Glad WrapTM confirmed that the foil was permeable to all wavelengths of light above 300 nm and did not obscure the reflectance of flowers.Do bees display preferences when choosing between pink versus white orchid flowers?To assess whether bees show a preference for pink or white variants of the orchid Caladenia carnea, I offered bees a simultaneous choice between a pink or white flower (N=16). See procedures for choice testing.Do bees habituate to non-rewarding orchids based on differences in floral coloration?I conducted a two coiffure experiment to investigate if bees could learn to habituate to a non-rewarding flower colour over time and whether bees adjusted their subsequent flower choice depending on the flower colour encountered previously. At stage 1 of the experiment, native bees were presented with one flower, either white or pink. Flowers were placed in a container with Glad WrapTM. Landings to the flower were recorded at the start and again at the 30 min mark. At stage 2, the flower from stage 1 was swapped with a new flower colour and the number of landings were scored for 5 minutes. Flowers were randomised and Glad WrapTM changed to prevent scent marks after each trial. Once again, bees were used only once per experiment.Statistical analysesFor experiments 2, 3 4, numbers of landings by naive bees to flower pairs were compared using two tailed paired t-tests. A two factor ANOVA was used to analyse whether bees habituate to non-rewarding orchids based on differences in floral coloration. The dependent variable was the number of landings and the two independent variables were previous flower colour and new flower colour.3. ResultsPart 1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration?Correlations between the inflection curves of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of hymenopteransThe analysis of 111 spectral reflection curves of Australian flowers reveals that sharp steps occur at those wavelengths where hymenoterans are most sensitive to spectral differences (fig. 4b). There are three work out peaks in sharp steps (fig. 4b). It is known that hymenopteran trichomats are all sensitive to spectral differences at approximately 400 and 500 nm (Menzel and Backhaus 1991 Peitsch, Fietz et al. 1992). Hence, the peaks at 400 and 500 nm can be discriminated well by hymenopteran trichomats, as illustrated by the inverse / function (solid curve shown in fig. 4a) of the honeybee (Helversen 1972), which is an empirically determined threshold function which shows the region of the electromagn etic function that a bees visual system discriminates colours best. In summary, the spectral position of receptors of trichomatic hymenopterans are correlates with steps in the floral spectra of Australian flowers.The distributions of Australian flower colours according to bees perceptionThe floral colour loci are strongly clustered in the colour hexagon (fig. 5a). Blue-green flowers are the most common in the perception of bees, while pure UV flowers were the rarest (fig. 5b).Part 2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences? sum of brightness, spectral purity, chromatic contrast and green receptor contrast on colour choicesThere was no significant effect of stimulus brightness on choice frequency (rs= 0.333, n=10, p= 0.347 fig. 7a). There was no significant effect of spectral purity on choice frequency (rs = 0.224, n=10, p= 0.533 figure 7b). There was no significant correlation effect of chromatic contrast on choice frequency (rs = 0.042, n= 10, p= 0.907 figure 7c). There was no significant effect of green receptor contrast on choice frequency (rs = 0. 0.552, n=10, p= 0.098 figure 7d).Effect of wavelength on colour choicesStimuli colours are plotted in figure 8a, as they appear to a human viewer to enable readers to understand the correlation between colour choices. However, all statistical analyses were conducted with stimuli plotted as wavelength due to the different visual perception of bees and humans (Kevan, Chittka et al. 2001). There is a significant effect of wavelength on the number of landings by Trigona carbonaria (Single factor ANOVA, F9,110 = 5.60, P

English Has Become A Global Language

incline Has Become A Global Language in that respect ar numerous various deliverys are being utilisationd throughout the adult male. Since there are too numerous different speech communications, a spheric phrase is produced. A words can achieve this place solitary(prenominal) when it is important to the world activities such as communication between countries, trading between different countries across the world and culture. It plays an important role and it is recognized by every country (Crystal, 2003). Crystal (2003) reports that incline has already reached this stage and there are closely a quarter of the worlds population around 1.2 to 1.5 billion people is already know and use English. Nowadays, English is the most widely spoken language in the world. English has direct up a global language not because of it is both easy to learn and is superior to some other language just now it has strong origin base. The thesis of this essay is divided into a few parts, f irst look at what is a global language and what bring abouts a language global and then why English start out a global language.Global language means a language which is using around the world and it is important to the world operation and influencing the domains of the human activity in the world. For example, global language is usually uses to write songs, use to trading throughout the world and communication between countries in the world. Global language is important to the world operation and a global language is needed in the world.A language has devil mains ways to become global. It can be an official language and foreign language of countries. Official language means a language which wildly used as mass medium of communication, such as media, the domains as government and the education system (Crystal, 2003). It also can be the first language of few countries. Crystal (2003) claims that a language can have a global status when it is used by other countries around the wo rld. Since a language cannot become global only use by itself. Foreign language means a language teaching in school which has no official status. A mother-tongue language becomes the foreign language and the official language is the step to sacrifice the language become global since a language cannot have a global status when it is not interpreted by the other countries. And English has finished the step to become an international language.English has become an international language not because it is easy to learn. There is no language is easy to learn and better, the difficulty of a language is depend on different learner and Lutz (2010) points that it depends on which level of the learner want to achieve, the high level, the more difficult. Ellis (1985) says that age, aptitude, cognitive style, motivation and personalities are the five main aspects which separate individual learner differences in a different level. This means the difficulty of language are depends on learner. E llis (1985) reports that aptitude is a main factor to divides the language learner to different level. If a learner has a good aptitude and a effective way to study a second language, the language willing become easier. Learner motivation also is a important factor that make a learner learn a second language success. A learner can likely learn a second language to be success when the motivation is high. Crystal (2003) reports that the intrinsic structural properties, the size of its vocabulary or it has been a vehicle of a great literature in the other(prenominal) or it was once associated with a great culture or religion are the motivation of some learner to learn a language but not the reasons make the language become global.English has become an international language also not because it is superior to other language. Crystal (2003) says that there are many people claim that a language can become global because its sense beauty, clear expression or religious standing and these are the misleading beliefs. Language can become a global language not because the beauty of the language and the number of people who intercommunicate it but who speak the language. There are some properties of English makes it become global appealing but the characteristics of the language are not the main reason to be cost to learn but the relative importance between the language characteristics and the internationally value. This make a language be more appealing but not superior to the other languages. English may be more appealing than other languages but not superior to languages.Crystal (2003) says that language can become a global language not because the beauty of the language and the number of people who speak it but who speak the language. English can become a world language mainly because of the strong military power and economic power. Crystal (2003) shows that a language cannot become global without strong power-bases, such as political power, military power and econ omic power. These are the dominance of the language which makes a language become global. The military power is the main reason to make a language become a global language. When a country has a strong military power, the others need to listen to the language spoken by the people in that country. Which means it makes that language is used in many countries. Between the world war two, Britain set up a lot of colonies. English became the official language and foreign language of the colonies. This is very important to be the official language and foreign language of the colonies because it is a important step to make a language become global. English must be taken by others countries to become global because a language cannot become global when it is only use by the countries which English is the mother-tongue. So English become the official language and foreign language of the colonies becomes the base of English to become a global language. an economic power is still needed to mainta in and expand the status of the language. Economically power became a main aspect which maintain and expand the status in the start of twentieth century. The economic start to growth and develop around the world and there are many new markets were born. There were many new technology are invent. Communication between countries is needed to develop the economic and market. Country has a stronger economically power, the first language of that country will become more important and it can maintain it longer and expand it to larger through the economy. Crystal (2003) claims that Britain had become the worlds headmost industrial and trading country at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The growth of economy of the English is the fastest in the world. These built the foundation of English in the world through the colonies and the economy. These are the two mains reasons to give English a global status.In conclusion, English has become an international language is not because it is b oth easy to learn and is superior to other language because there is no language is superior to other language and the difficultly of a language is depend on the individual learner differences. The reasons why English can become a global language because the military and the economic power of the countries which speak English And English was in the right place at the right time. (Crystal, 20037-10) English set up the base to the world through out the world by Britain colonies. English is also maintained and expended by the economically power and military power of Britain and USA. That the reason why English can become the global language and why English can still be the global language until now.

Social Penetration Essay -- Psychology Essays

Social PenetrationDecisions about self- manifestation - whether to reveal ones thoughts, feelings, or past experiences to another person, or the level of secretiveness of such disclosure - are part of the everyday life of most persons (Derlega and Berg, 1987, p. ix). The decisions one makes on the issue of whether or not to self-disclose with others affects not only the types of kindreds one will cook with others and how they are perceived, but also how well they know themselves. Clearly, self-disclosure plays a major role in the development of close relationships. Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor, the theorists behind Social Penetration possible action, recognise this fact and designed their theory to illustrate and explain this process of self-disclosure through social penetration. In this paper, I will explain Altman and Taylors Social Penetration theory and the framework behind it, offer come critiques that have been made about the theory by other communication scholars, a nd present examples of studies conducted using the ideas of social penetration.To infer the idea of Social Penetration theory, one must first understand the ideas behind it, and to a greater extent specifically, its framework. The theory foc characters around the idea that within every relationship social penetration processes exist. Altman and Taylor (1973) explain that these processes include verbal exchange, nonverbal use of the body, use of the physical environment, and interpersonal perceptions - all of which are exhibited at different levels of intimacy of encounter (p. 3). The goal of Social Penetration theory is to describe the formation, maintenance, and dissolution of close relationships (Derlega & Berg, 1987, p. 5). According to the theory, the form... ...ocial penetration theory. I used Griffins text mainly as a source for my critiques of the theory. Jourard, S. M. (1971). Self-disclosure an experimental analysis of the transparent self. New York, NY John Wil ey & Sons, Inc.This publication is another psychology oriented edition about self-disclosure. I didnt use any information from this book because it was all repetition from the other sources I gathered. I used the other source information because I found it more reputable.Tannen, D. (1986). Thats not what I mean How conversational style makes or breaks relationships. New York, NY Ballantine.Deborah Tannen, the author, is the theorist behind genderlects. The only information I used from this book was the advert about the differences between how men and women are seasoned to communicate. Nothing else was relevant to my topic.

Racial Beauty Standards In The Bluest Eye Essay -- Toni Morrison

In Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye, the character Claudia struggles with a ravisher measuring stick that harms her sense of self-esteem. Claudia tries to make sense of why the beauty standard does not embarrass black girls. The beauty standard determines that blonde-haired coloured-eyed white girls are the image of beauty and therefore they are worthy of not only attention, except are considered valuable to American civilization of the 1940s. Thus, learning she has no value or beauty as a black girl, Claudia destroys her white doll in an fire to understand why white girls are beautiful and subsequently worthy, socially superior members of society. In destroying the doll, Claudia attempts to destroy the beauty standard that works to make her intent socially inferior and ugly because of her skin color. Consequently, Claudias destruction of the doll works to show how the beauty standard was created to keep black females from feeling valuable by producing a sense of self-hate in black females. The racial loathing created within black women keeps them as passive objects and, ultimately, leads black women, specifically Pecola, to destroy themselves because they cannot attain the blue eyes of the white beauty standard.Claudia tries to resist loving white girls that her sister, Frieda, and friend, Pecola, admires for their beautiful features blonde hair and blue eyes. Claudia does not believe that Frieda and Pecola should admire girls who do not look like them physically. Unable to convince Frieda and Pecola that white girls are not the only standard of beauty, Claudia begins to have intense feelings of resentment and anger toward the white beauty standardI couldnt join them in their adoration because I hated Shirley. Not because she was... ...g that she does not really care for white features and/or white girls but she must pretend to have the same feelings and admiration for whiteness. So why must Claudia pretend to like white girls? Claudia learns it is easier to love the white beauty standard than to fight it because everyone even black women believe in white as the only source of beauty. She cannot fight the whole culturethe media, her sister, her friends, her community and the white community. So Claudia must convert from pristine sadism to fabricated hatred, to fraudulent love (Morrison 23). She must fake her love for whiteness in order to survive in the culture she must learn to hate her self to survive and treat herself as invisible object, rather than the socially recognized white girl.Works CitedMorrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. Afterward by Toni Morrison. New York Penguin, 1994.